Hoodectomy

On Hoodectomy

2008-12-16T01:49:00.000-08:00

Female genital cutting (FGC), female genital mutilation (FGM), female circumcision (FC), is the excision or tissue removal of any part of the female genitalia for religious, cultural or other non-medical reasons. It is not the same as the procedures used in gender reassignment surgery or the genital modification of intersexuals. FGC is practiced throughout the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa, Indonesia, and the Middle East.

The World Health Organization (WHO) separates FGC procedures into four categories: Type I, II, III, and IV. There is much controversy surrounding Type III (Infibulation) due to concerns regarding the safety and consequences of the procedure. In the past several decades, there have been pushes by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice of FGC. However, due to its importance in traditional and religious life, the practice remains in many societies.

World Health Organization Categorization

Type I

The WHO defines Type I female genital mutilation as the removal or splitting of the clitoral hood, termed "hoodectomy" (or "clitorodotomy"), with or without excision of the clitoris, see Diagram 1B. The clitoral hood is homologous to the foreskin of the penis which is removed during circumcision.
Although labeled Sunna by Islamic advocates of the practice, most Muslim clergy oppose all forms of female genital cutting as it is viewed as a social custom, rather than a religious practice. According to Dr. Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Salieh at the Swiss Institute of Comparative Law:
Islamic juridical logic cannot acknowledge the distinction between female and male circumcision, both being the mutilation of healthy organs which is damaging to the physical integrity of the child, whatever the underlying religious motivations. Furthermore, both practices violate the

Type II: Excision
Excision refers to clitoridectomy (removal of the prepuce and the clitoris) plus the partial or total removal of the labia minora, the inner lips of the vulva, see Diagram 1C. Type II circumcision is a more extensive form of FGC compared to Type I and due to the sewing together of the leftover labia minora epidermis, which contains sweat glands, a buildup of sweat and urine in the closed off space beneath this closure can lead to local or urinary infection, septicemia, hemorrhaging and cyst formation.This type of FGC is also called khafd, meaning reduction in Arabic.

Type III: Infibulation
Type III is the most severe form of FGC and is called infibulation or pharaonic circumcision (referring to the Pharaohs who were thought to practice this form). It accounts for 15% of all FGM procedures. Infibulation involves extensive tissue removal of the external genitalia, including all of the labia minora and the inside of the labia majora. The labia majora are then held together using thorns or stitching. In some cases the girl's legs have been tied together for two to six weeks, to prevent her from moving and to allow the healing of the two sides of the vulva. Nothing remains but the walls of flesh from the pubis down to the anus, with the exception of an opening at the inferior portion of the vulva to allow urine and menstrual blood to pass through, see Diagram 1D. Generally, a practitioner deemed to have the necessary skill carries out this procedure, and a local anesthetic is used. However, when carried out "in the bush," infibulation is often performed by an elderly matron or midwife of the village, with no anesthesia used.
A reverse infibulation can be performed to allow for sexual intercourse or when undergoing labor, or by female relatives, whose responsibility it is to inspect the wound every few weeks and open it some more if necessary. During childbirth, the enlargement is too small to allow vaginal delivery, and so the infibulation must be opened completely and restored after delivery. Again, the legs are sometimes tied together to allow the wound to heal. When childbirth takes place in a hospital, the surgeons may preserve the infibulation by enlarging the vagina with deep episiotomies. Afterwards, the patient may insist that her vulva be closed again.
This practice increases the occurrence of medical complications due to a lack of modern medicine and surgical practices. Despite claims that infibulation eliminates sexual pleasure, a five-year study of 300 women and 100 men in Sudan found that "sexual desire, pleasure, and orgasm are experienced by the majority of women who have been subjected to this extreme sexual mutilation, in spite of their being culturally bound to hide these experiences."
Most advocates of the practice continue to perform the procedure in adherence to standards of beauty that are very different from those in the west. Many infibulated women will contend that the pleasure their partners receive due to this procedure is a definitive part of a successful marriage and enjoyable sex life.
In some areas of Africa, women see infibulation as a form of female empowerment. A study by Anthropologist Rogaia M. Abusharaf, found that "circumcision is seen as 'the machinery which liberates the female body from its masculine properties' and for the women she interviewed, it is a source of empowerment and strength"

Type IV: Other types
There are other forms that are collectively referred to as Type IV and may not involve any tissue removal at all. This includes a diverse range of practices, including pricking the clitoris with needles, burning or scarring the genitals as well as ripping or tearing of the vagina or introducing herbs into the vagina to cause bleeding and a narrowed vaginal opening. Type IV is found primarily among isolated ethnic groups as well as in combination with other types.

Mauritania confronts tradition of female genital mutilation

2008-03-04T09:40:00.000-08:00

Ten United Nations agencies launched a joint campaign Wednesday (February 27th) to reduce the practice of female genital mutilation by 2015, and eradicate it entirely "within a generation".
UN Deputy Secretary-General Asha-Rose Migiro, who announced the initiative, said that while "communities that practice female genital mutilation report a variety of social and religious reasons for continuing with it, [when] seen from a human rights perspective, the practice reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women."
The UN action plan unveiled last week said an estimated 71.3 % of girls and women between the ages of 15 and 49 in Mauritania had undergone female genital mutilation, also called female circumcision or "cutting".
In Mauritania, most people performing the operations are traditional attendants who don't have medical experience or knowledge of sanitation. This reality threatens the lives of many young girls. Bleeding and shock are among the immediate consequences, but long-term health effects can include chronic pain, infections and trauma.
"I remember well the day when I was circumcised. I was seven years old at that time," Fatema told Magharebia. "One of our female neighbours did the operation. I was in great pain. My hands were tied. I was bleeding, and it was dealt with using traditional methods. Later, I noticed a weakness in my sexual abilities, something that stayed with me for a while."
Fatema added, "The strange thing is that my family was very convinced of that shameful tradition. Therefore, all my sisters were subjected to the same experience. After this bitter experience, I hope to make my daughters avoid this ordeal which sound human nature rejects."
Mauritanian civil society has not yet launched awareness campaigns to curb the phenomenon socially or religiously, nor has the government enacted a law banning female genital mutilation.
However, social worker Mohamed El Salek Ould Mohamed Lamine noted, "We have recently seen important medical and religious symposiums on state media channels. We hope they are the start of a serious examination of the phenomenon of female genital mutilation, which results in many social and health problems. Figures and statistics in this field are frightening, and require urgent efforts aimed at changing mentalities."
Some Mauritanian families who engage in the practice use religion as a pretext to justify what they consider part of their cultural heritage. This is despite the fact that clerics in the country have announced that female genital mutilation has no basis in religion.
One middle-aged woman told Magharebia in an angry voice, "It's a necessity and a religious duty at the same time: it is a necessity because it preserves the dignity of the women as well as that of her family and it is a religious duty because Islam preached it. For these two reasons, our ancestors were interested in cutting their daughters. We are quite sure that our ancestors were not doing something in vain."
But according to Imam and jurisprudent Saaden Ould Bouh, "The phenomenon of female genital mutilation doesn't have any roots in the Qur'an or sunnah. Rather, it is a social tradition that has merely been practiced by certain societies for some time."
He continued, "Islamic sharia, whose principle is based on the saying 'no excess or negligence,' can only endorse things that serve humanity in this world and the afterlife. Therefore, this practice, which is harmful to society and women alike, must disappear. Leaders, such as media people and others, have to enlighten public opinion on this matter."
Mauritanian women may see changes soon. According to a source close to the Mauritanian government, a group of MPs is currently preparing a draft law to ban the practice.

Female Genital Mutilation in Ghana

2008-02-27T01:49:00.000-08:00

Ghanaian women's rights groups have called for stronger laws against female genital mutilation (FGM) following two landmark rulings in northern Ghana against the traditional practice.The Ghanaian Association for Women's Welfare (GAWW) has demanded that parents who allow their daughters to have their clitoris and sometimes other parts of their vagina removed by amateur surgeons should be liable for punishment, as well as those who actually perform the cuts.The Ghana chapter of the International Federation of Women Lawyers (FIDA) has meanwhile called for stiffer penalties to be imposed on those who carry out the traditional operation.FMG which is widely known as female circumcision, is designed to reduce the woman's sex drive and remove her temptation to have sex before marriage.

The practice was made illegal in Ghana in 1994 and those who perform the operation face a prison sentence of at least three years. However, FMG is still common in the north, where it was widely practised before the ban, and there are relatively few prosecutions. 'The law does not punish accomplices such as parents, family and community members who help the FGM practitioner,' Florence Ali, the president of GAWW, told IRIN in an interview. 'If these collaborators are left free, this traditional practice will continue,' she said. Ali said the law should also make it an offence for parents to send their daughters to neighbouring Cote d'Ivoire, Togo and Burkina Faso to be circumcised, pointing out that at present ' it does not deal with cross-border FGM offenders.' In November, 2003, a Court in Ghana's Upper West Region jailed a 45-year old woman farmer, Fefe Dari, for five years for circumcising three girls, including a three-week old baby. And earlier this month, another court in the adjoining Upper East Region slapped a five-year jail term on a 70-year old woman for circumcising seven girls.

Women's organisations say these convictions are evidence that some progress has been achieved in the bid to completely eliminate FGM, which often leads to medical complications and can leave a woman psychologically scarred for life. Ali said public awareness programmes were gradually changing people's attitudes about female circumcision and many more people were now coming forward to report offenders to the police. 'The two jailed women were prosecuted based on tip-offs from people within their own communities,' she noted.

GAWW is affiliated to the Addis Ababa-based Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children which aims to completely eliminate female circumcision in Africa by 2010.

Already GAWW and other non-governmental organisations involved in the campaign, have persuaded traditional chiefs in the Upper West Region to publicly condemn the custom as 'inhuman and degrading.' The chiefs have also been persuaded to warn their subjects of the dire legal consequences should they persist in continuing the practice. However, many Ghanaian women's rights activists say the current law is too lenient.

They are calling for stiffer penalties, particularly in cases where the practitioner circumcises two or more girls at the same time. FIDA complains that Ghana's law against FGM is less comprehensive that that of neighbouring Burkina Faso. There, those who practise female circumcision can be jailed for up to 10 years if the victim bleeds to death. 'In all cases, FGM Victims are scarred for life. This amounts to an extremely serious human rights and medical violation. That is why stiffer sentences should be imposed to serve as a deterrent,' Chris Dadzie, president of the Ghanaian section of FIDA, told IRIN.

The organisation of women lawyers wants the police, government prosecutors and the courts to become better informed about the law against FGM so that they become more proactive in prosecuting against the custom. 'It takes a highly informed Judiciary to make an accurate assessment on the damages of FGM and thereby prescribe stiffer sentences on offenders,' Dadzie said.

GAWW's Ali said there were no reliable statistics on how many young girls were still being circumcised in northern Ghana since the practice had gone underground 10 years ago. FGM has always been rare in the more heavily populated south of the country where it was never a tribal tradition.

Nigeria: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC) By US Departmen Of State

2008-02-09T12:30:00.000-08:00

Released by the Office of the Senior Coordinator for International Women's Issues

Practice:
Type I (commonly referred to as clitoridectomy), Type II (commonly referred to as excision) and Type III (commonly referred to as infibulation) are the most common forms of female genital mutilation (FGM) or female genital cutting (FGC) practiced in Nigeria. Type IV is practiced to a much lesser extent.
The form practiced varies by ethnic group and geographical location. It crosses the numerous population groups and is a part of the many cultures, traditions and customs that exist in Nigeria. It crosses the lines of various religious groups. It is found among Christians, Muslims and Animists alike.

Incidence:
With over 250 ethnic groups and an estimated population of 120 million, a national estimate of this practice is very difficult. The most recent survey is a 1999 Demographic and Health Survey of 8,205 women nationally. This survey estimates that 25.1 percent of the women of Nigeria have undergone one of these procedures. According to a 1997 World Health Organization (WHO) study, an estimated 30,625 million women and girls, or about 60 percent of the nation’s total female population, have undergone one of these forms. A 1996 United Nations Development Systems study reported a similar number of 32.7 million Nigerian women affected. According to a Nigerian Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Coalition study, 33 percent of all households practice one of these forms. However, according to some Nigerian experts in the field, the actual incidence may be much higher than these figures. Leaders of the Nigerian National Committee (also the Inter-African Committee of Nigeria on Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children [IAC]) have been conducting a state by state study of the practice.

This 1997 study by the Center for Gender and Social Policy Studies of Obafemi Awolowo University in Ile-Ife, was contracted in 1996 by a number of organizations including WHO, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Women’s Affairs and the Nigerian Federal Health Ministry. The study covered 148,000 women and girls from 31 community samples nationwide.

Attitudes and Beliefs:

The Women's Centre for Peace and Development (WOPED) has concluded that Nigerians continue this practice out of adherence to a cultural dictate that uncircumcised women are promiscuous, unclean, unmarriageable, physically undesirable and/or potential health risks to themselves and their children, especially during childbirth. One traditional belief is that if a male child’s head touches the clitoris during childbirth, the child will die.

Outreach:
Much is being done to combat this practice. The campaign against FGM/FGC has long been waged, for the most part, by international, national and non-governmental organizations. IAC/Nigeria holds meetings and programs in both urban and rural communities throughout the country to inform the public about this subject. It uses videos, booklets and the mass media to reach school age children. In 1997, outreach programs on the dangers of this practice were intensified. In the states of Osun and Bayelsa, nurses and midwives were trained about the harmful health effects and how to select, train and supervise TBAs. There was extensive community outreach to men, women, school children and health workers. Anatomical models, films and posters were used. Posters were distributed in villages. Also actively campaigning against this practice are the National Association of Nigerian Nurses and Midwives, the Nigerian Medical Women’s Association and the Nigerian Medical Association.

These three groups in particular are against the legitimization of this practice as a medical necessity for females and are working to inform all Nigerian health practitioners about the harmful effects of the practice. The National Association of Nigerian Nurses and Midwives created a national information package about the harmful effects of the various procedures.

WHO, UNDP, DFID of Great Britain and Daneco of Sweden are actively funding Nigerian NGOs in addressing this practice. International organizations have adopted plans of action to eradicate these practices in Nigeria. WHO has a three-year short-term plan (1996-1998); an eight-year medium-term plan (1999-2006); and a nine-year long-term plan to eventually eliminate this practice from Nigeria and the rest of Africa.

Nurses and pediatricians have long campaigned against this practice. They have campaigned nationwide starting with national workshops in Lagos. Trainers were trained who in turn conducted informational activities about this practice at the state and local community levels. A variety of methods were used to get the message across as to the harmful effects. These included dramas, community mobilizations, national television talk shows, radio broadcasts, articles in newspapers, etc. The once taboo subject is now discussed in the open.

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is working with members of the Women’s Caucus of the National Assembly in addressing women’s health issues, including this problem.The Calvary Foundation based in Enugu State was awarded a grant of US$20,000 from the U.S.Embassy’s Democracy and Human Rights Fund to continue its campaign to ban this practice in five southeastern states.

Female genital cutting-Clitoral Hoodectomy

2008-01-19T12:26:00.000-08:00

Female genital cutting (FGC), female genital mutilation (FGM), female circumcision (FC), is the excision or tissue removal of any part of the female genitalia for religious, cultural or other non-medical reasons. It is not the same as the procedures used in gender reassignment surgery or the genital modification of intersexuals. FGC is practiced throughout the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa, Indonesia, and the Middle East. The World Health Organization (WHO) separates FGC procedures into four categories: Type I, II, III, and IV. There is much controversy surrounding Type III (Infibulation) due to concerns regarding the safety and consequences of the procedure. In the past several decades, there have been pushes by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice of FGC. However, due to its importance in traditional and religious life, the practice remains in many societies.

World Health Organization Categorization

Type I

The WHO defines Type I female genital mutilation as the removal or splitting of the clitoral hood, termed "hoodectomy" (or "clitorodotomy"), with or without excision of the clitoris, see Diagram 1B. The clitoral hood is homologous to the foreskin of the penis which is removed during circumcision.
Although labeled Sunna by Islamic advocates of the practice, most Muslim clergy oppose all forms of female genital cutting as it is viewed as a social custom, rather than a religious practice. According to Dr. Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Salieh at the Swiss Institute of Comparative Law:
Islamic juridical logic cannot acknowledge the distinction between female and male circumcision, both being the mutilation of healthy organs which is damaging to the physical integrity of the child, whatever the underlying religious motivations. Furthermore, both practices violate the

Type II: Excision
Excision refers to clitoridectomy (removal of the prepuce and the clitoris) plus the partial or total removal of the labia minora, the inner lips of the vulva, see Diagram 1C. Type II circumcision is a more extensive form of FGC compared to Type I and due to the sewing together of the leftover labia minora epidermis, which contains sweat glands, a buildup of sweat and urine in the closed off space beneath this closure can lead to local or urinary infection, septicemia, hemorrhaging and cyst formation.This type of FGC is also called khafd, meaning reduction in Arabic.

Type III: Infibulation
Type III is the most severe form of FGC and is called infibulation or pharaonic circumcision (referring to the Pharaohs who were thought to practice this form). It accounts for 15% of all FGM procedures. Infibulation involves extensive tissue removal of the external genitalia, including all of the labia minora and the inside of the labia majora. The labia majora are then held together using thorns or stitching. In some cases the girl's legs have been tied together for two to six weeks, to prevent her from moving and to allow the healing of the two sides of the vulva. Nothing remains but the walls of flesh from the pubis down to the anus, with the exception of an opening at the inferior portion of the vulva to allow urine and menstrual blood to pass through, see Diagram 1D. Generally, a practitioner deemed to have the necessary skill carries out this procedure, and a local anesthetic is used. However, when carried out "in the bush," infibulation is often performed by an elderly matron or midwife of the village, with no anesthesia used.
A reverse infibulation can be performed to allow for sexual intercourse or when undergoing labor, or by female relatives, whose responsibility it is to inspect the wound every few weeks and open it some more if necessary. During childbirth, the enlargement is too small to allow vaginal delivery, and so the infibulation must be opened completely and restored after delivery. Again, the legs are sometimes tied together to allow the wound to heal. When childbirth takes place in a hospital, the surgeons may preserve the infibulation by enlarging the vagina with deep episiotomies. Afterwards, the patient may insist that her vulva be closed again.
This practice increases the occurrence of medical complications due to a lack of modern medicine and surgical practices. Despite claims that infibulation eliminates sexual pleasure, a five-year study of 300 women and 100 men in Sudan found that "sexual desire, pleasure, and orgasm are experienced by the majority of women who have been subjected to this extreme sexual mutilation, in spite of their being culturally bound to hide these experiences."
Most advocates of the practice continue to perform the procedure in adherence to standards of beauty that are very different from those in the west. Many infibulated women will contend that the pleasure their partners receive due to this procedure is a definitive part of a successful marriage and enjoyable sex life.
In some areas of Africa, women see infibulation as a form of female empowerment. A study by Anthropologist Rogaia M. Abusharaf, found that "circumcision is seen as 'the machinery which liberates the female body from its masculine properties' and for the women she interviewed, it is a source of empowerment and strength"

Type IV: Other types
There are other forms that are collectively referred to as Type IV and may not involve any tissue removal at all. This includes a diverse range of practices, including pricking the clitoris with needles, burning or scarring the genitals as well as ripping or tearing of the vagina or introducing herbs into the vagina to cause bleeding and a narrowed vaginal opening. Type IV is found primarily among isolated ethnic groups as well as in combination with other types.[